List of principal characters in China, 1900-1949

Barrett, Colonel David Dean (1892-1977): American soldier, diplomat, and old China Hand. Barrett served more than 35 years in the U.S. Army, almost entirely in China. Fluent speaker of Mandarin and dialects.

Blucher, Vasily Konstantinovich [Galen]: Chief military Comintern (communist international) advisor to Chiang Kai-shek.

Borodin, Mikhail [Mikhail Markovich Gruzenberg]: Russian member of the Comintern who organized and led Sun Yat-sen’s government in the Bolshevik mode. Married to Fanya Borodin.

Cai Yuanpei (1868–1940): Sun’s envoy in negotiations with Yuan Shikai and later president of Peking University.

Chang Hsueh-liang (1901–2001) [Zhang Xueliang], the [Young Marshal], romanized as [Peter H. L. Chang]: Was the default ruler of Northeast China and much of northern China after the assassination of his father, Zhang Zuolin (the "Old Marshal".)

Chang Kuo-tao (1897-1979) [Zhang Guotao]: Was a founding member of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and rival to Mao Zedong. During the 1920s he studied in the Soviet Union and became a key contact with the Comintern, organizing the CPC labor movement in the United Front with the Kuomintang. In 1931, after the Party had been driven from the cities, he established the E-Yu-Wan Soviet.

Chang Tso-lin (1875 – 1928), [Zhang Zuolin], the [Old Marshal]: Warlord of Manchuria. Was an influential Chinese bandit, soldier, and warlord during the Warlord Era in China. The warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928, and the military dictator of the Republic of China in 1927 and 1928, he rose from banditry to power and influence. Assassinated 1928.

Chang Tsung-chang (1881-1932): [Zhang Zongchang], [Gourou Jiangjun], [Dogmeat General]: was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century.

Chou En-lai, Mme [Teng Ying-chao]: Married to Zhou Enlai. She was born Deng Wenshu in Nanning, Guangxi. Growing up in a poverty-stricken family. Deng studied at Beiyang Women's Normal School. She participated in the May Fourth Movement, where she met Zhou Enlai in 1919. They married on 8 August 1925 in Canton. Deng joined the Communist Youth League of China (CYL) in 1924 and became a member of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1925.

Chen Cheng (1897-1965): A Chinese political and military leader, and one of the main commanders of the National Revolutionary Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War. Became president of the Executive Yuan.

Chen Keng (1903-1961): Whampoa graduate (1925), he studied in Russia in 1926 and participated in the Nanchang Uprising in 1927.

Chen, Jennie (1906-1971), [Chen Chieh-ju], [Chen Jieru]: Married to Chiang Kai-shek. She was Chiang's second wife. Exiled to the United States after he replaced her with Mayling Soong, his third wife. Jennie later wrote a memoir suppressed by the Taiwanese government.

Chen Chi-mei [Chen Qimei] (1878-1916): Was a Chinese revolutionary activist and key figure of Green Gang, close political ally of Sun Yat-sen, and early mentor of Chiang Kai-shek. He was as one of the founders of the Republic of China, and the uncle of Chen Guofu and Chen Lifu. Supporter of Sun Yat-sen and patron of Chiang Kai-shek.

Chen, Duxiu: (1879–1942): Co-founded the Communist Party of China in 1921. Founder of the popular Shanghai journal New Youth.

Chen, Eugene (1878-1944): Foreign secretary in Sun Yat-sen's third Canton government. Editor of The Shanghai Gazette. Fled to Moscow after Chiang's break with Borodin's Comintern leadership council at Wuhan.

Chen Jiongming (1878–1933): Originally a supporter, he broke with Sun during the latter’s second Guangzhou [Canton] government and became a bitter enemy.

Chen Kuo-fu (1892-1951), [Chen Guofu]: The older of the two Chen brothers. KMT theorist. Joined the Tongmenghui in 1911. He participated in both the revolution against the Qing dynasty and the "second revolution" against Yuan Shikai. He restarted his political career in 1924, being nominated as member of the Kuomintang Central Audit, as well as head of the Department of Organization and president of the Central Financial Committee. Together with his younger brother Chen Lifu, he organized the CC Clique or Central Club Clique of the Kuomintang.

Chen Li-fu: The younger of the Chen brothers.

Chen Qimei (1878–1916): An ardent supporter of Sun and the protector of Chiang Kai-shek, whose career he helped to shape; assassinated by Yuan Shikai.

Chen Shaobai (1869–1934): One of the “Four Bandits” and one of Sun’s lieutenants during the Xingzhonghui period.

Chen Tianhua (1875–1905): Anti-Manchu pamphleteer who committed suicide in 1905 to protest repressive Japanese policies against Chinese students.

Chen Yinke (1890-1969): Chinese historian, linguist, politician, and writer.

Chen Yun [Liao Cheng-yun]: joined the CCP in 1924. Specialized in labor unions.

Chennault, Claire Lee: Unofficial head of the Chinese air force. Involved in lend-lease graft.

Chen Yi: Corrupt Chinese general named by Chiang as governor of Taiwan after World War II.

Chiang Ching-kuo: Chiang Kai-shek’s only biological son. Controlled the Kuomintang and Taiwan after the death of his father.

Chiang Wei-kuo: Chiang Kai-shek’s adopted son.

Chuikov, Vasilii: Chief Soviet military adviser to Chiang Kai-shek before the 1926-1927 KMT-Comintern break at Wuhan. [twenty years later] Chuikov arrived in Finland late December 1939 just after the Red Army disaster on the Raate-Suomussalmi road, wrote a report on it, and then assumed command of the partially shattered 9th Red Army.

Chu Teh [Zhu De] (1886-1976): Commander-in-chief of the army of the CCP in China 1931 onwards. Standing Committee 1959-1976.

Cixi, The Dowager Empress [Tzu-hsi] (1835–1908): The last powerful member of the Manchu dynasties. Consort of the Xianfeng Emperor, she ruled over the Chinese empire from behind the silk screen after his death in 1861.

Clark-Kerr, Archibald: English diplomat who served as ambassador to China from the late 1930s until 1942.

Cohen, Morris [Two-Gun Cohen]: Petty criminal in Canada. Served as bodyguard to Sun Yat-sen.

Corcoran, Thomas G.: Lawyer. Chartered China Defense Supplies for T. V. Soong.

Currie, Lauchlin: A Soviet spy. Named White House economist in 1939, he was invited to China in 1941 and 1942 to help straighten out the country’s finances.

Davies, John Paton, Jr.: Fluent in Mandarin and dialects. Served in the State Department and as political consultant to General Joseph Stilwell. Awarded Medal of Freedom.

Deng Yingchao: Zhou Enlai's lifelong wife, advisor and companion.

Deng Xiao-ping: A veteran of the Long March and survivor of the Cultural Revolution, he emerged as China’s de facto leader after Mao’s death. He spoke at both Chou En-lai’s and Sun Ching-ling’s funerals.

Deng Zhongxia [Teng Chung-hsia]: early member of the Communist Party of China.

Deng Ziyu [Teng Tzu Yu] (1878–1925): A veteran of the Huizhou Uprising in 1900, he took refuge in Singapore, where he helped to start a revolutionary movement.

Dia Li [Tai Li]: Head of the Kuomintang secret police. This organization was known as the Military Bureau of Statistics and Investigation or "Junshi Weiyuanhui Tongji Diaocha Ju" or simply "Juntong."

Ding Ling: Writer.

Donald, William Henry: An Australian journalist who raised the Chiangs to the status of world icons and became May-ling’s chief adviser.

Donovan, William: Head of the OSS during World War II.

Dorn, Colonel Frank: Chief assistant to General Stilwell in China.

Duan Qirui (1865–1936): Leader of the Anhui clique who served as prime minister of the republic (1916–17) and later as chief executive (1925–26).

Dulles, John Foster: Named secretary of state by Eisenhower, he continued Truman’s policy of neutralization of the Taiwan Strait.

Du Yueh-sen [Tu Yuehsen, Big-eared Du]: Mafia boss. Organized and controlled the opium market in Shanghai.

Fairbank, John K.: Renowned academic and historian of China, who worked for the OSS and the Office of War Information in Chungking during World War II.

Falkenhausen, Alexander von: General who headed the German military mission to China.

Fang Chih-min: Organizer of peasant partisan warfare before his capture and execution in 1935.

Farmer, Rhodes: Australian journalist, whose story on Japanese atrocities earned him a place on their assassination list. He also edited Madame Chiang’s first book — a collection of her articles.

Feng Guozhang (1859–1919): Leader of the Zhili clique who served as president of the republic in 1917–1918.

Feng Yu-hsiang [Feng Yuxiang] or [The Christian General] or [The Betrayer General] (1882–1948): He led a coup against Wu Pei-fu and later formed the Guominjun. Possibly murdered aboard a Russian freighter transiting the Black Sea.

Feng Ziyou (1881–1958): The Tongmenghui’s representative in Hong Kong and southern China who served as Sun’s private secretary during his brief presidency.

Gabrielson, Eric: Norwegian ship’s captain who befriended Charlie Soong.

Galen [Blucher, Vasily Konstantinovich]: The chief military Comintern adviser to Chiang Kai-shek at the military school of Whampoa. Led the Northeast Expedition to Wuhan 1926-27.

George, Henry (1839–1897): American social reformer whose single-tax idea deeply influenced Sun’s thinking.

Gauss, Clarence E.: American ambassador to China during World War II (1941–44), whose warnings about the unreliability of the Chinese government were often ignored by Harry Hopkins and FDR.

Goh Say Eng [Wu Shirong] (1875–1941): Chairman of the Penang branch of the Tongmenghui.

Gu Shunzhang [Gu Fengming]: born in Baoshan, Shanghai, was a leader of the Communist Party of China.

Guangxu Emperor (1871–1908): Eleventh emperor of the Qing dynasty; he was placed under house arrest by the Empress Dowager Cixi, his aunt, for initiating the Hundred Day Reform.

Hakka General [Chen Chiung-ming]: A southern warlord who was trusted by Sun Yat-sen but not by Chiang Kai-shek.

Hart, Robert: Head of Imperial Maritime Customs Service, which collected customs duties for the Chinese Government.

Hay, John: American diplomat responsible for the FDR's Open Door Policy.

H.H. Kung [Kung Hsiang-hsi]: The seventy-fifth lineal descendant of Confucius. Married Soong Ai-ling and became China’s minister of finance. Involved in banking and brokerage house graft.

Ho Kai [He Qi](1859–1914): Founder of the College of Medicine for Chinese in Hong Kong and one of Sun’s early benefactors and role models.

Ho Lung: In 1920 Ho raised a brigade for the Nationalist Army. In 1926 he joined the CCP, while he was in command of the Twentieth KMT Army. At Nanchang he joined Yeh Ting and Chu Teh in the armed uprising of 1 August, 1927. Defeated, he escaped to Shanghai.

Ho Ying-chin: The highly corrupt Kuomintang general who controlled military affairs in China.

Hopkins, Harry: Close friend and adviser to President Roosevelt. FDR's hatchet man and court intriguer.

Hornbeck, Stanley K.: Chief of the U.S. State Department Division of Far Eastern Affairs from 1928 to 1937 and special adviser to the secretary of state during World War II.

Hsiang, V. S.: Mow Pang-tsu’s executive officer who helped uncover the corruption in the purchase of military equipment for China.

Hsieh, Pin-hsin: Writer.

Hsiao Ching-kuang: Joined the Socialist Youth Corps in Shanghai in 1920 and in that year reached Russia and entered the Comintern’s Sun Yat-sen University, where he entered the branch CCP. Returning to China in 1924, he became an instructor and student cadet at Whampoa Academy. He took part in the Northern Expedition (1926).

Hsu, General Chung-chih: Third in line to inherit the leadership of the Kuomintang until he deserted his post in the city of Waichow.

Hsu Teh-li: Hailed by Mao as his “most respected and beloved teacher.”

Hu Han-min [Hu Hanmin](1879–1936): One of Sun’s principal lieutenants during the Tongmenghui period who became the first republican governor of Guangdong.

Huang Jin-rong[Pockmarked Huang]: A leading figure in Shanghai crime. Worked as chief of police under the aegis of the French Surete in the French Concession section of Shanghai.

Huang Naishang (1849–1924): Father-in-law of Lim Boon Keng who became a staunch supporter of Sun.

Huang Xing (1874–1916): Leader of the Huaxinghui who became Tongmenghui’s number two and remained loyal to Sun throughout the Tongmenghui period.

Hurley, Patrick J.: Arrogant character sent by President Roosevelt to China to bring the Nationalists and Communists together. Became a tool of the Soong-Chiang clique.

Hu Shih [Hu Shi]: Advocate of vernacular literature. Onetime pupil of Charlie Soong who became China’s ambassador to the U.S. (1938–42).

Inukai Ki [Tsuyoshi] (1856–1932): Japanese journalist and politician who was one of Sun’s benefactors.

Jiang Qing [Chiang Ch’ing], original name [Li Chung-chin][Yun-ho]: Mao Tse-tung’s third wife. Viscous and cruel.

Joffe, Adolf (1883–1927): Soviet Russian Comintern agent. He held secret meetings with Sun Yat-sen and signed an agreement of cooperation between Sun’s government and the Chinese Communist Party.

Kang Youwei (1858–1927): Chinese scholar who inspired the Hundred Day Reform and founded the Baohuanghui (Society to Save the Emperor).

Kan Li-chu, General: Chinese Sixth Army (Burma). The Sixth Chinese Army Burma disintegrates under his command April 1942.

Kang Sheng: Mao's Chief of the secret police.

Kerr, George H.: U.S. diplomat and influential commentator on Taiwan politics.

Khoo Seok Wan [Qiu Shuyuan](1874–1941): Kang You-wei’s host in Singapore in 1900 who reportedly gave S$250,000 to the Baohuanghui.

Kissanka: An Russian Comintern agent sent to replace Borodin in China.

Kohlberg, Alfred: A rich merchant active in the China Lobby and the search for communist moles in positions of political power.

Koo, Wellington: Kuomintang diplomat who served as ambassador to the United States and Britain.

Kong Xiangxi [Kung Hsiang-hsi] [H.H. Kung] (1881–1967): Often known as Dr. H. H. Kung, was a corrupt Chinese banker and politician in the early 20th century. He married Soong Ailing, the eldest of the three Soong sisters; the other two married President Sun Yat-sen and the latter President Chiang Kai-shek. Together with his brother-in-law, Soong Tse-ven, he was highly influential in determining the economic policies of the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government of the Republic of China in the 1930s and 1940s.

Kuai Dafu: Notorious and violent Cultural Revolution student leader Tsinghua University.

Kung, David: The elder of the two Kung boys.

Kung, Louis: The younger Kung son, who acted as a courier for the China Lobby, went into the oil business, and married a movie star.

Kung, Jeanette: The younger of the two Kung girls. An obvious lesbian in a day when most women stayed in the closet. She accompanied her aunt to the United States dressed like a westernized boy.

Kung, Rosamond: The elder of the two Kung girls, she helped May-ling in her later years.

Kuo, Mo-jou: Poet with a brilliant mind.

Ku Tsu-chaun: second-tier Green Gangster. Helped Sun Chingling and Rayna Prohme escape Wuhan by rowboat to a Russian freighter anchored nearby.

Lambert, Eleanor: Fashionista and a friend of Madame Chiang.

Lattimore, Owen: China scholar sent to China to help Chiang Kai-shek with political problems.

Lea, Homer (1876–1912): Hunchbacked American adventurer who served as military adviser to Sun Yat-sen before the 1911 Revolution.

Lee Teng-hui: The first democratically elected president of Taiwan, expelled from the KMT when he founded a new party.

Leonard, Royal: Pilot for Young Marshal Chang Hsueh-liang, he ended up working for the Chinese air force.

Li Hongzhang (1823–1901): Doyen of the Self-Strengthening Movement who became the second most powerful person in the empire after the Empress Dowager Cixi.

Li Hsien-nien: Joined the Northern Expedition when it reached Hankow and soon (1927) became a Communist. A Red Guard guerrilla leader in Hupeh peasant uprisings.

Li Li-san: The de facto head of the Chinese Communist Party from 1928 to 1930, who clashed with Mao over communist theory.

Li Liejun (1882–1946): 1911 Revolution veteran who joined the Yunnan generals to launch the anti-monarchic campaign against Yuan Shikai and rallied to Chiang Kai-shek after Sun’s death.

Li Ta-chao: A librarian at the Peking National University and later a professor of history. Founded the Society For Study of Marxism 1918. His assistant librarian, a young Mao Zedong, was a member of the Society. First member of the Chinese Communist Party to join the Kuomintang. The first impressive Chinese interpreter of Marxism. His life ended in execution executed by strangulation on April 28, 1927.

Li Tsung-jen: Leader of the Warlords’ Council, which Chiang defeated in the late 1920s, he became vice president in 1948 and took over when Chiang fled the mainland.

Li Yuanhong [Li Yuan-hung] (1864–1928): Leader of the 1911 Revolution who served as vice president under Sun and Yuan Shikai.

Li Zhisui, Doctor: Mao's physician.

Liang Qichao (1873–1929): Kang Youwei’s disciple who supported Kang’s constitutional monarchy but later advocated liberal republicanism

Liao Zhongkai (1877–1925): Minister of Finance in Sun’s third military government, he became the leader of the Guomindang’s left wing after Sun’s death; assassinated in August 1925.

Lin Shiliang: A confidential assistant to H. H. Kung, involved in smuggling and graft.

Lim Boon Keng [Lin Wenqing] (1868–1957): Chinese community leader in Singapore who helped Sun to secure the release of his Japanese friends from incarceration

Lin Yutang: Chinese writer and philosopher.

Liu Chen-huan: Warlord of Kwansi province. In spite of his profiteering from opium and brothels in Canton, Sun Yat-sen dubbed him “Living Angel Liu” because he had been wounded fighting for the city.

Liu Yuan: Liu Shaoqi's son.

Liu Shaoqi [Liu Shao-chi] (1898-1969): Considered a Marxist-Leninist theoretician. Authored book "On Inner Party Struggle". Regarded a member of the top leadership ranks. He was purged, imprisoned, and tortured to death by Mao's murder clique. Posthumously rehabilitated by Deng Xiaoping's government in 1980. One of the best men of the Revolution.

Lin Shouzhi [Lim Shou-chih] (1873–1924): A veteran of the 1900 Huizhou Uprising, he helped to organize the two Chaozhou uprisings.

Lo Cho-ying, General: Commander supposedly serving under General Stilwell during the Burma campaign, but was secretly reporting to Chiang with the intent to undermine Stilwell's command authority.

Lo Jui-ching: Chinese Communist Party Minister of Public Security and secret police. Overseer of Mao's political detention centers, prisons and forced labor camps.

Lu Haodong (1872–1895): Sun’s friend and accomplice in desecrating the village idol in Cuiheng; executed in the aftermath of the Guangzhou Uprising in 1895.

Lu Xun: China's greatest twentieth century writer.

Luo Ruiqing, General: One of the earliest members of the Red Army, later served as Minister Public Security. Ousted by Mao 1966.

Magnenoz, Robert [R. Jobez]: Chief or Vice Chief of the French Concession political police (early 1930's).

Magruder, John: Brigadier general who headed a U.S. military mission to China in 1941.

Mao Fu-mei: Chiang Kai-shek’s first wife by arranged marriage.

Maring [Hendricus Sneevliet], Chinese name [Tisan Kuo-chi] possibly also known as [Mekka]: Dutch Comintern agent who helped convince Sun Yat-sen to ally his revolutionary party with the Soviets. Sneevliet lived in China from 1921 to 1923 and was present at the founding congress of the Chinese Communist Party in July 1921. In addition to the pseudonym Maring, Sneevliet used the names [Martin], [Philips], and [Sentot] during this period

Marshall, General George C.: Sent to China to try to bring the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party together.

McHugh, James M.: Naval attaché in the American Embassy and officer in charge of Far Eastern secret intelligence, he was allied with the Chiangs.

McTyeire, Bishop Holland N.: Head of the Southern Methodist Mission in China.

Mills, Emma DeLong: May-ling’s best friend at Wellesley. Their friendship continued hot and cold after college.

Miyazaki Torazo [Toten] (1871–1922): Japanese adventurer and Sun’s lifelong friend and one of his most ardent supporters.

Morgenthau, Henry, Jr.: President Roosevelt’s secretary of the Treasury. He did not trust the Soongs or Chiang, but loaned them millions in accordance with FDR's orders.

Mountbatten, Louis: Supreme Commander of the Southeast Asia Command. Member of the English royal family.

Mow Pang-tsu: Former brother-in-law of Chiang Kai-shek who reported corruption in the purchase of military supplies for China.

Nikolsky: Soviet intelligence officer and representative of the Russian Comintern - a driving force behind the creation of the Communist Party China 1922.

New Shan-chow: May-ling’s uncle, married to one of her mother’s sisters and an old friend of her father.

Nehru, Jawaharlal: The first prime minister of India.

Nelson T. Johnson: U.S. Ambassador to China, 1929–41. Steady and able. Fluent in Mandarin Chinese.

Otto Braun [De Li]: German Comintern military advisor to Mao Zedong and the CCP.

Pai Chung-hsi: An important general and close associate of Li Tsung-jen, who was named minister of defense after World War II and worked for Chiang Kai-shek in Taiwan.

Puyi (1906–1967): Last emperor of the Qing dynasty; abdicated in 1912 but from 1934 to 1945 was puppet emperor of Japanese-controlled Manzhouguo.

Peng Zhen: Mayor of Beijing. Fell afoul of Mao and Jiang Qing during the Cultural Revolution.

von Seeckt, Hans: German general, author of Chiang Kai-shek’s successful Fifth Liquidation Campaign, which forced the Chinese Communists to go on their Long March.

Service, John Stewart: A China hand fluent in speaking Chinese who served in the U.S. Embassy.

Sneevliet, Hendricus [Marin] [Mekka]: (1883 - 1942), was a Dutch Communist, functionary of the Comintern in Shanghai.

Song Jiaoren (1882–1913): Kuomintang [Guomindang] leader who was assassinated at the Shanghai Railway Station by Yuan Shikai's faction.

Soong, Charlie Jones [Han Chiao-shun] Christian patriarch of the Soong clan.

Soong, Madame Ni Kwei-tseng: An aristocrat from an old Chinese family and matriarch of the Soong clan.

Soong, Ai-ling [Nancy, Eileen]: eldest daughter of the Soong children. Married H. H. Kung.

Soong, Ching-ling [ Soong Qingling], [Mme. Sun], [Rosamonde]: (1893–1981) second in line in the Soong family; married Sun Yat-sen and supported the Russian Communists. Later protected by Zhou Enlai during the Cultural Revolution.

Soong, Tse-an [T.A. Soong]; Youngest of the Soong family, he became a banker.

Soong, T.V.; [Soong Tse-ven]: Harvard graduate. Created the Universal Trading Corporation staffed by Chinese to handle Lend-Lease Goods and funds. Always referred to as T.V., Madame Chiang’s older brother, was a world-renowned economist in his day.

Soong, Tsu-liang [T.L Soong]: Fifth child in the Soong family who became a businessman.

Stilwell, General Joseph W.: Sent to China in 1942 to reform the Chinese army. Stilwell awarded DSC (Burma). His low opinion of Chiang Kai-shek proved correct after China fell to the communists.

Stimson, Henry L.: Secretary of; War under President Roosevelt.

Stuart, John Leighton: Last of the U.S. ambassadors to China who dealt with the Kuomintang government on the mainland.

Sun Chuan-fang: A warlord with five provinces.

Sun Ke [Sun Fo] (1891–1973): Only son of Sun Yat-sen, he served as Mayor of Guangzhou from 1922 to 1924.

Sun Fo [Sun Ke]: Son of Sun Yat-sen, a changeable politician who served the KMT in several positions and took the remnants of the government to Canton as a last holdout against the CCP.

Sun Mei (1854–1915): Sun Yat-sen’s elder brother, who financed his education and revolutionary career.

Sun Yat-sen (1866 – 1925): also known as [Sun Yat-sun], [Sun Chung-shan], [Sun Yi-hsien], [Sun Wen], [Sun Jih-hsin], [Suen Yat-sen], [Suen Yat-sun], [Sun Yixian] and [Sun Rixin], was a Chinese statesman, physician, and political philosopher, who served as the first provisional president of the Republic of China and the first leader of the Kuomintang (KMT) [(Guomindang (GMD), Nationalist Party of China]. He is called the "Father of the Nation" in the Republic of China, and the "Forerunner of the Revolution" in the People's Republic of China for his tangential role in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty during the Xinhai Revolution.

Tai Li [Dai Li]: Head of Chiang Kai-shek’s secret police [Juntong].

Tan Chor Nam [Chen Chunan] (1884–1971): Co-founder of the Thoe Lam Jit Poh, he was the first chairman of the Singapore branch of the Tongmenghui.

Tang Shen-chih: The general left in charge of defending Nanking when the Imperial Janapnese Army arrived, but ran away leaving his troops as the troops approached the City.

Tang Shaoyi (1862–1938): Chief negotiator for the Qing dynasty in 1911 who became the first prime minister of the Republic of China.

Tao Chengzhang (1878–1912): Leader of the Guangfuhui faction in the Tongmenghui who accused Sun of financial mismanagement and campaigned to oust him.

Teng Ying-chao: Married to Zhou Enlai and served in various positions on the Central Committee of the CCP.

Teng Tse Ju [ Deng Zeru], (1869–1939): Chairman of the Kuala Pilah branch of the Tongmenghui and one of Sun’s strongest supporters in British Malaya.

Teo Eng Hock [Zhang Yongfu] (1872–1957): Co-founder of the Thoe Lam Jit Poh whose villa Wanqingyuan served as the headquarters of Tongmenghui, Singapore.

Tong, Hollington: American-trained journalist and biographer of Chiang Kai-shek, who served as the KMT’s publicity man during World War II and later as ambassador to the United States.

Too Nam [ Du Nan] (1854–1939): Sun Yat-sen’s Chinese tutor in Hawaii who later became one of his main supporters in Malaya.

Tu Li-ming, General: Chinese 5th Army (Burma) literally disappeared from the field 15 April, 1942 then suddenly reappears at Ramgarh, India January 1943 demanding operational command of the Chinese Expeditionary Force (Burma). Tu tells Dorman-Smith that Stilwell is not in charge of Burma Campaign.

Uchida Ryohei (1873–1937): Japanese nationalist who founded the Black Dragon Society [Kokuryukai].

Umeya Shokichi (1868–1934): Japanese impresario who helped to secure arms for Sun’s first Canton [Guangzhou] Uprising in 1895 and remained a lifelong friend and supporter.

Voitinsky, Grigori: Voitinski arrived Peking 1920 and then moved to Shanghai. Comintern deputy manager Russian Far East Bureau for Shanghai 1920-1927.

Wang Ching-wei [Wang Jingweii] (1883–1944): The top man in the Kuomintang after Sun Yat-sen, he was expected to succeed Sun. Imprisoned for an assassination attempt on the prince regent in 1910, he was Sun’s heir apparent but was outmaneuvered by Chiang Kai-shek.

Wang Dongxing: Mao's bodyguard. Member of a group involved in attempt to undermine and ruin Zhou Enlai.

Wang Guangmei [Liu Shao-chi, Mme],[Wang Kuang-mei]: Married to Liu Shaoqi. Later tortured and imprisoned for many years by Mao and the Gang of Four. Survived the Cultural Revolution.

Wang Hsiu-chen: Leader in the CCP CC women’s department, was arrested in Shanghai in 1932 by the Nationalists, and disappeared.

Wang Ping-nan: Served as Chou En-lai’s political secretary in Chungking (1938-45).

Wang Shouhua: Once a trade union leader invited to visit one of Du’s mansions on Donghu Lu, only to be nearly choked to death by Du’s mafia enforcers for attempting to set up a Soviet organization. Just as Wang was losing consciousness, Du appeared at the top of the stairs, shouting, “Not here, not in my mansion!”

Wedemeyer, Albert C.: Undermined General Stilwell’s authority at South East Asia Command (SEAC).

Wen Bing-chung: May-ling’s uncle, married to one of her mother’s sisters and an old friend of her father.

Willauer, Whiting: American lawyer who worked for T.V. Soong at China Defense Supplies and helped Claire Chennault start Civil Air Transport (later bought by CIA and renamed Air America). Likely involved in lend-lease graft.

Wu Kuo-chen [K. C. Wu]: Liberal governor of Taiwan, whom Chiang Kai-shek failed to silence.

Wu Pei-fu (1874–1939): Beiyang Army general who became leader of the Zhili clique and controlled the Beijing government from 1922 to 1924.

Wu Tingfang (1842–1922): First ethnic Chinese to be called to the English bar, he was the chief negotiator for the revolutionaries in the North-South negotiations in 1911.

Xiang Ying: A Communist general assassinated on the orders of Mao Zedong.

Xu Xueqiu [Koh Soh Chew] (1875–1912): Tongmenghui member who played the key role in the two Chaozhou [Chiuchow, Chaochow or Teochew] uprisings in 1907.

Xu, Zhimo: Charismatic poet.

Yang Heling (1868–1934): One of the “Four Bandits” whose shop was used as the group’s meeting place.

Yang Huang-kuan: Warlord who controlled the Army of Yunnan and profited from crime in next-door Canton.

Yang Hu-chen: Warlord of Shensi province and partner of the Young Marshal at Xian.

Yang Quyun (1861–1901): Sun’s partner and rival for leadership of the Xingzhonghui, he was poisoned after the failed Huizhou Uprising.

Yao Yi-cheng: Chiang Kai-shek’s concubine, mother of his adopted son, Chiang Wei-kuo.

Yen Hsi-shan [The Model Governor]: A major warlord of the province of Shansi [Shanxi].

You Lie (1864–1936): One of Sun’s “Four Bandits” friends, he took refuge in Singapore in 1901 in the wake of the failed Huizhou Uprising and formed branches of the Gonghedang in British Malaya.

Yuan Shikai (1859–1906): Marshal of the Beiyang Army who succeeded Sun as president and later tried to found a new dynasty.

Yung Wing [Rong Hong] (1828–1912): A graduate of Yale, he was the first Chinese to graduate from an American university.

Young, Arthur N.: Economic adviser to the U.S. State Department, the Chinese Government, and Central Bank of China (1929–47).

Youngman, William S. Jr.: President of China Defense Supplies from 1942 to 1945. A law partner of Thomas G. Corcoran and friend of T. V. Soong, he served from 1949 to 1968 as president of C. V. Starr, the insurance giant.

Zhang Binglin (1868–1936): The editor-in-chief of Subao who was incarcerated together with Zou Rong in the Subao Affair.

Zhang Zuolin [The Old Marshal] (1875–1928): Warlord of Manchuria as head of the Fengtian clique.

Zhang Renjie: [Curio Chang] [Chang Jen-chieh] [Chang Ching-chiang]: Art and antique smuggler and patron to Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek. Many connections in Parisian society.

Zheng Shiliang (d.1901): Sun’s classmate at the Boji Medical School and the Xingzhonghui leader responsible for liaison with the secret societies.

Zhou Enlai [Chou En-lai]: Second only to Mao Tse-tung in the Chinese Communist Party. Served as China's first premier and foreign minister. Betrayed Liu Shaoqi during the Cultural Revolution.

Zou Rong (1885–1905): Author of The Revolutionary Army who was incarcerated together with Zhang Binglin in the Subao case.

Zhu Zhixin (1885–1920): A gifted Minbao polemicist, he was the ghostwriter for The International Development of China.

Events, Places, Campaigns and Treaties

1912 Constitution: The provisional constitution promulgated by the provisional parliament on March 12, 1912, under which executive power was exercised by the president together with the cabinet whose members had to be approved by parliament. This was the constitution that Sun tried to restore in 1917 when he set up his first civil-military government in Guangzhou.

1914 Constitution: The constitution introduced by Yuan Shikai on May 1, 1914, which did away with all the restrictions on the president’s executive power and extended the presidential term to ten years, renewable by re-election without limit. It empowered the president to nominate his own successor, thus assuring Yuan of an indefinite tenure as well as the right to pass it on to his offspring.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance: Signed on January 30th, 1902, the alliance was directed specifically against Russian expansionism and bound Britain and Japan to joint action in the event a fourth power joined with Russia. It was the first treaty between an Asian and a Western power against a Western rival and marked Japan’s coming of age in international diplomacy. The alliance served Japan in the Russo-Japanese War by discouraging France from aiding her ally Russia. The Alliance was renewed in 1905 and 1911 but was replaced in 1922 by the Four-Power Treaty signed between Britain, France, Japan and the United States at the Washington Naval Conference.

Baohuanghui: The Protect the Emperor Society (official English name: Chinese Empire Reform Association), founded by Kang Youwei in British Columbia, Canada, on July 20, 1899. Its goal was to restore the Guangxu Emperor to the throne and to introduce constitutional monarchy in China. It lost its raison d’être after Guangxu’s death and renamed itself Xianzhenghui (Constitutional Party).

Black Dragon Society (Kokuryukai): A Japanese paramilitary group founded in 1901 by Uchida Ryohei to support efforts to keep Russia north of the Amur River and out of Asia. Its members included cabinet ministers, high-ranking military officers as well as secret agents, and it initially distanced itself from the criminal activities of its predecessor, the Genyosha. Over time, it found the use of unlawful tactics a useful means of achieving its aims. The Society supported Sun Yat-sen and Emilio Aguinaldo in the Philippines. It evolved into a mainstream political party in the 1920s and expanded its activities globally in the 1930s. The Society was disbanded by order of the American Occupational Authority in Japan c.1946.

Boxer Uprising “Righteous and Harmonious Fists”: An anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising initiated by a group called the Yihequan. In May 1900, bands of militants were roaming the countryside around Beijing. On June 20, they laid siege to the foreign legations quarter, which was lifted on August 14 by an eight-nation expeditionary force that entered the capital. The Boxer Protocol signed on September 7, 1901, provided for, among other things, payment of indemnities to the foreign powers.

British Malaya: The term loosely describes the states in the Malay Peninsula and Singapore that came under British control in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Century of Humiliation: The intervention and imperialism by Western powers and Japan in China from the Opium War in 1839 to the Kuomintang defeat in 1949.

China Defense League (China Defense Fund) (1938): A Comintern front group founded in Hong Kong by Soong Chingling (after she purchased a small flat there). A major supply source for areas under Communist control. Also a shell organization to launder Soong family assets (graft). Madame Sun fenced looted curios and artifacts to western collectors.

China Proper: A term used by many Western writers of the Qing period to distinguish China’s 18 “historical” provinces from more recently acquired territories on her northern and western frontiers, notably Manchuria, Mongolia, Xizang (Tibet) and Xinjiang. There is no direct translation of this term in Chinese and its use today is controversial as it implies that the frontier regions are somehow separate territories. The 18 provinces were Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shandong, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang and Zhili.

Chong Shing Yit Pao (Renaissance Daily): The first official newspaper of the Tongmenghui in Singapore.

Civil Service Examination: The system used to select candidates for the state bureaucracy, consisting of three levels. The lowest degree, the shengyuan, was awarded on the basis of strict quotas established by the central government. Successful candidates, known colloquially as xiucai, or “flourishing talents,” traveled to the provincial capital in the fall to sit for the juren degree. Every third year, juren graduates traveled to the capital to sit for the highest-level metropolitan jinshi degree, with a final examination presided over by the emperor to rank the candidates. Some would be appointed to the prestigious Hanlin Academy, while others would gain jobs in the bureaucracy. The civil service examination system was abolished in 1905.

Constitution Protection Movement: A movement launched by Sun’s first Guangzhou military government in 1917 to reinstate the 1912 Constitution after Duan Qirui tried to call a new provisional parliament in November 1916 instead of reconvening the old parliament that Zhang Xun had forced Li Yuanhong to dissolve on June 12, 1916.

CPC: Abbreviation for Communist Party of China; sometimes also abbreviated as CCP, Chinese Communist Party.

Datong Ribao; (Great Harmony Daily): A newspaper published in the San Francisco Bay area that had a correspondence relationship with Thoe Lam Jit Poh.

The Four Olds: Old ideas, old cultures, old customs and old habits.

The Three Anti campaign 31 August 1951:

The Five Anti campaign January through mid June 1952: Focused on the remaining urban business-economic class. Struggle meetings and forced monetary restitution to the State. Considerable number of people arrested.

Fengtian: This may refer to the province now known as Liaoning but it was also used to refer to the whole of northeast China, covering the three provinces of Jilin, Heilongjiang and Fengtian (renamed Liao ning in 1929, revived under the Manzhouguo regime, and in 1945 again renamed Liaoning).

Five-Power Constitution: Proposed by Sun Yat-sen as a means of implementing democracy in China after the overthrow of the imperial regime, it provided for a central government composed of five yuan, or branches. Apart from the legislative, executive and judicial yuan, there would be an examination yuan to administer the selection of candidates for the bureaucracy, and a censorate or control yuan to check on the honesty and efficiency of the government.

Five Hus and Sixteen States of China: Jin Dynasty 'Five Hus' means five specific ethnic groups of ancient China, including the Huns, Xianbei, Jie, Di and Qiang. The sixteen states are Qian Zhao, Hou Zhao, Cheng Han, Qian Yan, Hou Yan, Nan Yan, Bei Yan, Qian Liang, Hou Liang, Nan Liang, Bei Liang, Xi Liang, Qian Qin, Hou Qin, Xi Qin and Xia.

Furen Wenshe: The Literary Society for the Development of Benevolence, Yang Quyun’s revolutionary organization that was merged into the Xingzhonghui.

Gang of Four: Yao Wenyuan, Wang Hongwen, Zhang Chunqiao and Jiang Qing.

Gelaohui: The Society of Elder Brothers, a secret society active in the Yangtze region, particularly in Hubei and Hunan provinces.

Gemingdang: See Zhongguo Gemingdang, or Kuomintang or Chinese Revolutionary Party.

Gongjinhui: The Society for Common Progress was one of the separatist groups of the Tongmenghui which along with the Wenxueshe, another breakaway group, subverted the New Army in central China that sparked the Wuchang Uprising.

Guangfuhui: The Restoration Society, established by Cai Yuanpei in Shanghai in 1904, was a revolutionary organization which drew its members from Zhejiang and Anhui. It joined the Tongmenghui in 1906 under the leadership of Zhang Binglin and Tao Chengzhang.

Guomindang: The successor organization of the Tongmenghui after the absorption of several political parties into its fold. On October 10, 1919, Sun announced the creation of the Zhongguo Guomindang, Kuomintang or Nationalist Party of China, which in a sense was a new organization rather than a resurrection of the original Guomindang.

Huaxinghui: The Society for China’s Revival was founded in Hunan in December 1903 and drew its members largely from the Yangtze valley, particularly Hunan and Hubei. Under the leadership of Huang Xing and Song Jiaoren, it merged with several other revolutionary organizations in 1905 to form the Tongmenghui.

Hundred Day Reform: The 103 days during which Kang Youwei and his followers influenced the Guangxu Emperor to issue edicts on political and economic reform. It ended when Empress Dowager Cixi staged a coup, imprisoned the emperor and executed six reformers.

Ideological Reform campaign: Reform of university staff through a study movement of criticism and self-criticism. Later merged into the Three Anti campaign which then merged into the Five Anti campaign.

Kokuryukai: See Black Dragon Society.

Kuomintang: Nationalist party founded in China under Sun Yat-sen in 1912, and led by Chiang Kai-shek from 1925. It held power from 1928 until the Communist Party took power in October 1949 and subsequently formed the central administration of Taiwan.

Kuomintang Revolutionary Committee: Allowed to continue to function as a faction independent of the CCP.

Manchuria: The term used by Westerners and Japanese to refer to northeast China. Within China, it is known as Dongbei, or Northeast, and comprises the three provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Fengtian (now Liaoning).

May Fourth Movement: A cultural revolution that began in 1915 with the launch of New Youth, a monthly magazine edited by leftist Chen Duxiu to agitate for reform. As part of this New Culture Movement, supporters attacked traditional Chinese thought and promoted Western ideas, particularly science and technology. A high point of this movement was the student demonstration on May 4, 1919, when more than 3,000 students in Beijing held a rally against the decision of the Paris Peace Conference to transfer the former German concession in Shandong to Japan. The demonstrations sparked national protests and marked the upsurge of Chinese nationalism. Many political and social leaders of the following decades emerged at this time.

May Thirtieth Incident (May 30th Incident): A Russian-Chinese Comintern led labor and anti-imperialist movement that began when municipal police officers opened fire on armed Communist militiamen in Shanghai’s International Settlement on May 30th, 1925. The shootings sparked nationwide anti-foreign demonstrations and riots.

Meiji Restoration: The political revolution that returned state power from the Tokugawa shogunate to the Meiji Emperor. It began an era of major politico-socio-economic change that led to Japan’s modernization.

Military Bureau of Statistics and Investigation: Kuomintang secret police also known as the Junshi Weiyuanhui Tongji Diaocha Ju, or Juntong.

Minbao (People’s Journal): The official organ of the Tongmenghui after Twentieth-Century China was banned by the Japanese government in late 1905.

Ministry of Public Security: Chinese Communist Party secret police organization. Administration of forced (slave) labor, detention centers and prisons.

Nanchang Uprising (Nánchang Qiyì): 1 August 1927 was the first major Nationalist Party of China–Chinese Communist Party military engagement of the Chinese Civil War, begun by Zhou Enlai and the Chinese Communists to counter the Shanghai coup of 1927 by the Kuomintang. The Kuomintang (KMT) left wing established a "Revolutionary Committee" at Nanchang to plant the spark that was expected to ignite a widespread peasant uprising. Deng Yanda, Sun Qingling and Zhang Fakui were among the political leaders.

Nanjing Decade: An informal name for the decade from 1928, when Chiang Kai-shek took control of Nanjing, to 1937 when his government retreated to Wuhan as a consequence of the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Nanyang: Literally Southern Ocean, this is the Chinese term for what is today’s Southeast Asia. Nanyang used to refer to the countries immediately to the south of China. Today when we speak of the Nanyang Chinese, we are referring to those Chinese settled in countries reachable by sea, i.e., Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Singapore. It does not include those Chinese who migrated overland to countries on the Asian landmass from neighboring Chinese provinces.

National Protection Movement: Also translated as Movement for the Protection of the Country, this movement emerged in late 1915 after Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor. Warlords Cai E and Tang Jiyao of Yunnan declared their independence and organized the National Protection Army for an expedition against Yuan. A number of other provinces followed suit with their own declarations of independence. The movement was declared a success after Yuan’s death and the provinces rescinded their independence.

New Culture Movement:

Pan-Asianism: A racist ideology advocating and promoting the unity of Asian peoples against white Europeans. Its roots go back to the mid-19th century when China and Japan, forced to open up, struggled to redefine their place in the international order. The Kokuryukai under Uchida Ryohei emerged as the leading pan-Asian organization advocating the idea of Asian solidarity against the government’s policy of cooperation with Western powers.

Ramgarh: General Stilwell's Chinese military training camp located 200 miles west of Calcutta. Troops trained there are later known as the Chinese Expdeditionary Force (Burma).

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905): A war fought over rival ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. The major theaters of operations on land were in China, specifically the Liaodong peninsula and southern Manchuria. The war ended with Russia’s defeat and the Treaty of Portsmouth mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt.

Second Revolution: The civil war that ensued after seven southern provinces rebelled against Yuan Shikai following the assassination of Song Jiaoren and Yuan’s various violations of the constitution and the lack of due process in his governance.

Self-Strengthening Movement: A movement to initiate institutional reforms after the defeat of the mid-19th-century rebellions. The objective was to consolidate the power of the Qing regime and to strengthen China by introducing American, British and German technology.

Treaty of Shimonoseki: See Sino-Japanese War.

Sino-French War (1884–1885): A war fought over the sovereignty of Indochina. China lost the war but was not required to make reparations.

Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895): An armed conflict over the sovereignty of Korea. China lost, and was required under the Treaty of Shimonoseki signed on April 17, 1895, to recognize the independence of Korea, cede Taiwan, the Pescadores and the Liaodong peninsula to Japan, and pay Japan an indemnity of 200 million taels. On April 23, the Triple Intervention of Russia, France and Germany forced Japan to return the Liaodong peninsula to China in exchange for a higher indemnity. The indemnity more than covered Japan’s war costs and funded a massive rearmament program. In 1898, Russia took the Liaodong peninsula for herself.

Subao Case: A situation precipitated by the arrest in July 1903 of six Chinese nationals by the Shanghai International Settlement authority on charges of treason against the Chinese state. The arrest provoked an international crisis as the Qing government and the Settlement’s authorities tussled with each other on where and how the men should be tried. The affair was finally resolved in May 1904 when a specially constituted court brought the case to a close by entering sentences against two of them, Zou Rong and Zhang Binglin.

Straits Settlements: The group of territories in Southeast Asia established in 1826 as part of the domain controlled by the British East India Company. The Straits Settlements came under direct British control as a crown colony on April 1, 1867, until 1946, when it was dissolved as part of the British reorganization of its Southeast Asian dependencies following the end of World War II.

Thien Nan Shin Pao: The organ of the reform movement in Singapore.

The Four Cleans [Siqing]: Eliminate corruption among rural cadres.

Thoe Lam Jit Poh (Daily for Closer Relations with the South): The Singapore revolutionary newspaper started by Tan Chor Nam and Teo Eng Hock.

Three Red Banners: 1957 umbrella campaign involving; First, "going all out, aiming high campaign. Second, "the Great Leap Forward". Third, "Peoples Communes; radical agricultural reorganization." Also "Hundred Flowers" campaign.

Revolutionary Alliance or United League or Tongmenghui or The China Federal Association. This was Sun’s second revolutionary organization, formed in Tokyo in 1905 through the merger of his first revolutionary organization, the Xingzhonghui, with the Huaxinghui and several smaller revolutionary groups, and joined the following year by the Guangfuhui. Sun was elected its zongli, or party president. The Tongmenghui was transformed into a political party in March 1912 and later merged with several smaller political parties to form the Guomindang in preparation for its participation in parliamentary elections. Sun remained as zongli but delegated his authority to Song Jiaoren.

Treaty Ports: See Unequal Treaties.

Triple Intervention: See Sino-Japanese War.

Twentieth-Century China: Official organ of the Guangfuhui, inherited by the Tongmenghui and renamed Minbao.

Twenty-One Demands: A set of demands made by Japan to Yuan Shikai’s government in January 1915 while the West was preoccupied with World War I. The demands were for economic rights for Japanese in Manchuria, the right to station police and economic advisers there, and major economic concessions in China Proper. Divided into five groups of demands, the fifth group would have given Japan significant control over the entire Chinese economy and effectively ended the Open Door Policy. Japan was forced by Britain and the United States to drop the fifth group of demands but obtained the first four groups in a treaty with China in May 1915.

Unequal Treaties: China’s defeat by Britain in the Opium War, the first in a series of armed conflicts between China and European powers, led to the signing of the Treaty of Nanjing in August 1842, which forced China to open five “treaty ports” for trade – Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai – while Hong Kong was ceded in perpetuity to Britain. China was later forced to make additional concessions: the inclusion of a most-favored-nation clause in the treaty; fixed tariffs on trade and extraterritoriality in the Treaty Ports. The Nanjing treaty was followed by similar treaties with other Western powers. By virtue of the most-favored-nation clauses, these powers were granted the same privileges and rights accorded to Britain. The Chinese viewed these treaties as unequal because they were imposed on China through gunboat diplomacy and because they encroached on China’s sovereign rights. Most of these unequal treaties were abrogated during the Second Sino-Japanese War. A few survived, most notably the treaties concerning Hong Kong and Macau, which were finally resolved with their respective handovers to China in 1997 and 1999.

United League: Translated variously as Revolutionary Alliance or United League. See also Tongmenghui.

Versailles, Treaty of: One of the most important treaties that brought an end to the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers in World War I. The other Central Powers signed separate treaties. Although the armistice signed on November 11, 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty, which was finally signed on October 21, 1919. China refused to ratify the treaty due to the provisions which allowed Japan to retain the former German concessions in Shandong. See also May Fourth Movement.

Washington Naval Conference: A disarmament conference called by U.S. President Warren Harding to limit and balance the level of naval power in the various Pacific territories after Japan obtained concessions in the region under the Treaty of Versailles. It was held in Washington, D.C., from November 12, 1921, to February 6, 1922, and attended by nine nations: Belgium, Britain, China, France, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portugal and the United States. Neither Russia nor the Central Powers defeated in World War I were invited.

Whampoa [Huangpu] Military Academy: Located on a island on the Pearl river ten miles south of Canton.

Weihaiwei: metropolitan conurbation that consists of Rongcheng City, Wendeng City and Rushan City.

Wenxueshe: Literary Institute, one of the separatist groups of the Tongmenghui which along with Gongjinhui, another breakaway group, subverted the New Army in central China that sparked the Wuchang Uprising.

Wuchang Uprising [Wuhan Uprising]: The catalyst for the 1911 Revolution, the Wuchang Uprising began with the accidental explosion of a bomb that was being assembled by revolutionaries in Hankou on the evening of October 9, 1911. The next day, a mutiny broke out among the troops stationed in neighboring Wuchang as a consequence of the explosion.

Xinghanhui: The Revive Han Society was a short-lived revolutionary organization created by Sun in collaboration with the Gelaohui.

Xingzhonghui : The Revive China Society was Sun Yat-sen’s first revolutionary organization, founded in Honolulu in 1894.

Xinhai Revolution: An alternate name for the 1911 Revolution, which took place in the Xinhai year of the traditional Chinese calendar.

Zhili: From the 18th century until its dissolution, Zhili province encompassed parts of today’s Beijing and Tianjin municipalities, Hebei province, western Liaoning, northern Henan and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. In 1928, the Nationalist government assigned portions of northern Zhili to its neighbors and renamed the remainder Hebei province.

Zhongguo Gemingdang: The Kuomintang or Chinese Revolutionary Party, founded by Sun in July 1914 after Yuan Shikai outlawed the Guomindang. Virtually all overseas branches continued to identify themselves as belonging to the Guomindang since Yuan’s ban affected only the domestic branches.

Zhonghetang: The revolutionary society formed by You Lie in Yokohama in 1900 following the failure of the Huizhou Uprising. Branches were later set up in British Malaya after he moved to Singapore.

Zhongshan Gunboat Incident: Canton-Whampoa March 1926.

Zongli Yamen: The Office for the Management of All Foreign Countries, established by the Qing court in 1861 to deal with the crisis provoked by Western powers. Under the leadership of Prince Gong, it was involved not only in treaty negotiations but in Self-Strengthening projects, including the establishment of language schools with Western curricula, and the study of Western forms of government and international law.

Partial List of American Journalists in China

Alsop, Joseph: Wealthy Ivy Leager. Newspaper journalist. Family connection to FDR led to his involvement in the China Lend-Lease corruption-graft clique headed by Mayling Soong and Claire Chennault (Flying Tigers.)

Belden, Jack: Combat and field journalist in various World War Two combat theaters. Old "China Hand." Fluent speaker of Mandarin and dialects.

Buck, Pearl S. (1892–1973): Fluent in Mandarin and dialects. Writer and China cultural expert. The first Westerner to translate the Chinese classic novel "The Water Margin."

Cowles, Gardner, Jr.: Publisher of Look magazine and many newspapers, he accompanied Wendell Willkie on his world tour in 1942.

Gellhorn, Martha: New Dealer. One of Eleanor Roosevelt's ghostwriters. Interviewed Mayling Soong in Chungking (Chongqing) and then relayed that information to Eleanor. Landed Normandy D-Day posing as a American nurse and earned her keep as a stretcher-bearer.

Gunther, John: Employed by various newspaper publishers, wrote the popular 'inside' continental series of books.

Gould, Randall: Old China Hand who wrote for the left-wing magazine the Nation and later for The Shanghai Post.

Howard, Roy W.: Chairman of the board of Scrips-Howard News Service.

Luce, Claire Boothe: Journalist and one of Mayling's unquestioning admirers.

Luce, Henry: Publisher of Time, Life, and Fortune magazines, he was a supporter of China and allied with the Chiangs.

Marcks, Violet Cressy(1895–1970): British explorer and writer mainly active between the world wars. She visited Yan’an in 1938 while traveling through China, where she had a five hour conversation with Mao. She was not impressed by Mao and unlike Edgar Snow, she asked tough questions that edgar Snow failed to ask.

Oursler, Fulton: American writer, editor and journalist.

Oursler, Grace: Helped Mayling with her with her book about faith, The Sure Victory.

Pearson, Drew: American journalist known for his muckraking column “Washington Merry-Go-Round.”

Prohme, Rayna: American Communist writer-journalist who escaped from Shanghai to Moscow with Sun Ching-ling. Died in Moscow of encephalitis.

Sheean, Vincent; (1899-1975): Alt-left journalist. Stalinist apologist. Member of the Comintern front group League of American Writers. Wrote wildy hyperbolic ode to Chingling Soong. Fabulist. Lurid tabloid writing style. Chased love interest Rayna Prohme across China to Soviet Russia.

Smedley, Agnes: Propagandist for the Chinese communists. American writer and communist member of the International Union of Revolutionary Writers. Member of the free love movement.

Snow, Edgar: American writer and Maoist propagandist.

Snow, Helen Foster: Translator and wife of Edgar Snow. Considered Pearl Buck a writer of low-brow popular fiction.

Sokolsky, George: Columnist and radio broadcaster who started as a communist revolutionary in China.

Strong, Ann Louise: Pro-Stalinist communist-apologist writer and journalist. Had an affair with the married Mikhail Borodin.

Utley, Freda: English journalist and author of a number of books, who supported the Communists until the Soviet secret police arrested her Russian husband.

White, Theodore H.: Objective and steady American journalist who covered China during World War II and wrote articles and books about the experience.

Winchell, Walter: Newspaper and radio journalist.

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